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Ambivalent sexism is a theoretical framework which posits that sexism has two sub-components: hostile sexism (HS) [1] and benevolent sexism (BS). [1] Hostile sexism reflects overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about a gender (e.g., the ideas that women are incompetent and inferior to men).
- Overview
- What is sexism?
- What are the types of sexism?
- 1. Hostile sexism
- 2. Benevolent sexism
- 3. Ambivalent sexism
- 4. Institutional sexism
- 5. Interpersonal sexism
- 6. Internalized sexism
- Summary
Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s sex or gender. It can lead to many harmful behaviors, from acts of violence to subtle comments that reinforce stereotypes.
All manifestations of sexism are harmful and have a negative impact on society. Women are most severely affected, but sexism also affects people of other marginalized genders. Less directly, it also harms men.
In this article, we describe the different types of sexism and give some examples that people may commonly encounter.
A note about sex and gender
Sex and gender exist on spectrums. This article will use the terms “male,” “female,” or both to refer to sex assigned at birth. Click here to learn more.
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Sexism is prejudice or discrimination against a person or group based on their sex or gender. It primarily affects women and girls, and it is the root cause of gender inequity worldwide.
Sexist acts include any that frame one sex or gender as inferior. Sexism can be conveyed in:
•behavior
•speech
•writing
•images
People categorize sexism in several ways. Sexism can be:
•hostile
•benevolent
•ambivalent
These terms come from the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, a framework that researchers use to understand and measure the effects of this prejudice.
Sexism can operate on different levels in society. It can be:
This refers to beliefs and behaviors that are openly hostile toward a group of people based on their sex or gender. Misogyny, or the hatred of women, is an example of hostile sexism.
People who hold views that are hostile and sexist may view women as:
•manipulative
•deceitful
•capable of using seduction to control men
•needing to be kept in their place
Benevolent sexism includes views and behaviors that frame women as:
•innocent
•pure
•caring and nurturing
•fragile and in need of protection
•beautiful
This is a combination of benevolent and hostile sexism. People who engage in ambivalent sexism may vary between seeing women as good, pure, and innocent and seeing them as manipulative or deceitful, depending on the situation.
Some researchers argue that hostile and benevolent sexism support one another as part of a system.
Benevolent sexism offers women protection in exchange for them adopting a more subordinate role, while hostile sexism targets those who deviate from this. For this reason, some refer to the former as “Plan A” and the latter as “Plan B.”
Some examples of ambivalent sexism include:
•glorifying traditionally feminine behavior and demonizing “unladylike” behavior, in media coverage, for example
•hiring someone because they are attractive, then firing them if they do not respond to sexual advances
This refers to sexism that is entrenched in organizations and institutions, such as:
•the government
•the legal system
•the education system
•the healthcare system
•financial institutions
This manifests during interactions with others. It can occur in the workplace, within relationships, among family members, and in interactions with strangers.
Examples of interpersonal sexism include:
•telling someone to be more ladylike
•judging someone for not fitting into stereotypes of femininity, such as by being caring or submissive
•making inappropriate comments about someone’s appearance
•talking down to someone based on assumptions about their gender
Internalized sexism refers to sexist beliefs that a person has about themselves. Usually, a person adopts these beliefs involuntarily as a result of exposure to sexist behavior or the opinions of others.
Internalized sexism may cause feelings of:
•incompetence
•self-doubt
•powerlessness
•shame
There are many types of sexism. This prejudice and discrimination can be hostile and overt or seemingly benevolent and more subtly harmful.
Many countries that consider themselves to be tolerant instead perpetuate a mixture of types, forming a system of ambivalent sexism.
- Jayne Leonard
Nov 7, 2019 · This chapter discusses ambivalent sexism as a coordinated system of control that serves male dominance and limits women's power across personal, economic, and political domains. First, we review ambivalent sexism theory, focusing on ambivalent sexism's system-justifying functions.
- Rachel A. Connor, Peter Glick, Susan T. Fiske
- 2016
Aug 31, 2011 · The insights outlined above informed our approach to constructing a new sexism measure, the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI). We generated items based on our analysis of sexist ambivalence but also raided popular wisdom (e.g., books on “how to catch a man”) about gender relations.
- Peter Glick, Susan Tufts Fiske
- 2011
Jan 1, 2016 · An interlocking set of misogynistic and paternalistic attitudes toward women, known as ambivalent sexism, resolves tension between male dominance and heterosexual intimate independence,...
Ambivalent sexism theory (Glick & Fiske, 1996) posits that two complementary ideologiesaim to control women: hostile sexism (antipathy toward nontraditional women) coexists with benevolent sexism (seemingly favorable yet demeaning beliefs about conforming women).
Dec 2, 2022 · The theory of and research on ambivalent sexism — which encompasses both attitudes that are overtly negative (hostile sexism) and those that seem subjectively positive but are actually...
