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Vedanta (/ v eɪ ˈ d ɑː n t ə /; Sanskrit: वेदान्त, IAST: Vedānta), also known as Uttara Mīmāṃsā, is one of the six orthodox traditions of textual exegesis and Hindu philosophy. The word "Vedanta" means "conclusion of the Vedas", and encompasses the ideas that emerged from, or aligned and reinterpreted, the speculations ...
Aug 7, 2024 · Vedanta, one of the six systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy. The term Vedanta means in Sanskrit the “conclusion” (anta) of the Vedas, the earliest sacred literature of India. It applies to the Upanishads, which were elaborations of the Vedas, and to the school that arose out of the study.
- The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Apr 29, 2024 · Vedanta is a profound and ancient philosophy that originates from the spiritual texts known as the Vedas, which are among the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. The word "Vedanta" itself is a combination of two Sanskrit words: "Veda," meaning knowledge, and "anta," meaning end or culmination.
The essential philosophy of Advaita is an idealist monism, and is considered to be presented first in the Upaniṣads and consolidated in the Brahma Sūtra by this tradition. According to Advaita metaphysics, Brahman—the ultimate, transcendent and immanent God of the latter Vedas—appears as the world because of its creative energy (māyā).
- Overview
- Fragments from the Mandukya-karika until Shankara
- Varieties of Vedanta schools
- The concepts of nondualism
No commentary on the Vedanta-sutras survives from the period before Shankara, though both Shankara and Ramanuja referred to the vrittis by Bodhayana and Upavarsha (the two may indeed be the same person). There are, however, pre-Shankara monistic interpreters of the scriptures, three of whom are important: Bhartrihari, Mandana (both mentioned earlier), and Gaudapada. Shankara referred to Gaudapada as the teacher of his own teacher Govinda, complimented him for having recovered the advaita (nondualism) doctrine from the Vedas, and also wrote a bhashya on Gaudapada’s main work: the karikas on the Mandukya Upanishad.
Gaudapada’s karikas are divided into four parts: the first part is an explanation of the Upanishad itself, the second part establishes the unreality of the world, the third part defends the oneness of reality, and the fourth part, called Alatashanti (“Extinction of the Burning Coal”), deals with the state of release from suffering. It is not accidental that Gaudapada used as the title of the fourth part of his work a phrase in common usage among Buddhist authors. His philosophical views show a considerable influence of Madhyamika Buddhism, particularly of the Yogachara school, and one of his main purposes probably was to demonstrate that the teachings of the Upanishads are compatible with the main doctrines of the Buddhist idealists. Among his principal philosophical theses were the following: All things are as unreal as those seen in a dream, for waking experience and dream are on a par in this regard. In reality, there is no production and no destruction. His criticisms of the categories of change and causality are reminiscent of Nagarjuna’s. Duality is imposed on this one reality by maya, or the power of illusion-producing ignorance. Because there is no real coming into being, Gaudapada’s philosophy is often called ajativada (“discourse on the unborn”). Though thus far agreeing with the Buddhist Yogacharins, Gaudapada rejected their thesis that chitta, or mind, is real and that there is a real flow of mental conception.
No commentary on the Vedanta-sutras survives from the period before Shankara, though both Shankara and Ramanuja referred to the vrittis by Bodhayana and Upavarsha (the two may indeed be the same person). There are, however, pre-Shankara monistic interpreters of the scriptures, three of whom are important: Bhartrihari, Mandana (both mentioned earlier), and Gaudapada. Shankara referred to Gaudapada as the teacher of his own teacher Govinda, complimented him for having recovered the advaita (nondualism) doctrine from the Vedas, and also wrote a bhashya on Gaudapada’s main work: the karikas on the Mandukya Upanishad.
Gaudapada’s karikas are divided into four parts: the first part is an explanation of the Upanishad itself, the second part establishes the unreality of the world, the third part defends the oneness of reality, and the fourth part, called Alatashanti (“Extinction of the Burning Coal”), deals with the state of release from suffering. It is not accidental that Gaudapada used as the title of the fourth part of his work a phrase in common usage among Buddhist authors. His philosophical views show a considerable influence of Madhyamika Buddhism, particularly of the Yogachara school, and one of his main purposes probably was to demonstrate that the teachings of the Upanishads are compatible with the main doctrines of the Buddhist idealists. Among his principal philosophical theses were the following: All things are as unreal as those seen in a dream, for waking experience and dream are on a par in this regard. In reality, there is no production and no destruction. His criticisms of the categories of change and causality are reminiscent of Nagarjuna’s. Duality is imposed on this one reality by maya, or the power of illusion-producing ignorance. Because there is no real coming into being, Gaudapada’s philosophy is often called ajativada (“discourse on the unborn”). Though thus far agreeing with the Buddhist Yogacharins, Gaudapada rejected their thesis that chitta, or mind, is real and that there is a real flow of mental conception.
Though Vedanta is frequently referred to as one darshana (viewpoint), there are, in fact, radically different schools of Vedanta; what binds them together is common adherence to a common set of texts. These texts are the Upanishads, the Vedanta-sutras, and the Bhagavadgita—known as the three prasthanas (the basic scriptures, or texts) of the Vedant...
Shankara’s philosophy is one among a number of other nondualistic philosophies: Bhartrihari’s shabhadvaita, the Buddhist’s vijnanadvaita, and Gaudapada’s ajativada. Shankara’s system may then be called atmadvaita—the thesis that the one, universal, eternal, and self-illuminating self whose essence is pure consciousness without a subject (ashraya) and without an object (vishaya) from a transcendental point of view alone is real. The phenomenal world and finite individuals, though empirically real, are—from the higher point of view—merely false appearances. In substantiating this thesis, Shankara relied as much on the interpretation of scriptural texts as on reasoning. He set down a methodological principle that reason should be used only to justify truths revealed in the scriptures. His own use of reasoning was primarily negative; he showed great logical skill in refuting his opponents’ theories. Shankara’s followers, however, supplied what is missed in his works—i.e., a positive rational support for his thesis.
Shankara’s metaphysics is based on a criterion of reality, which may be briefly formulated as follows: the real is that whose negation is not possible. It is then argued that the only thing that satisfies this criterion is consciousness, because denial of consciousness presupposes the consciousness that denies. It is conceivable that any object is not existent, but the absence of consciousness is not conceivable. Negation may be either mutual negation (of difference) or absence. The latter is either absence of a thing prior to its origination or after its destruction or absence of a thing in a place other than where it is present. If the negation of consciousness is not conceivable, then none of these various kinds of negations can be predicated of consciousness. If difference cannot be predicated of it, then consciousness is the only reality and anything different from it would be unreal. If the other three kinds of absence are not predicable of it, then consciousness should be beginningless, without end, and ubiquitous. Consequently, it would be without change. Furthermore, consciousness is self-intimating; all objects depend upon consciousness for their manifestation. Difference may be either among members of the same class or of one individual from another of a different class or among parts of one entity. None of these is true of consciousness. In other words, there are not many consciousnesses; the plurality of many centres of consciousness should be viewed as an appearance. There is no reality other than consciousness—i.e., no real prakriti; such a thing would only be an unreal other. Also, consciousness does not have internal parts; there are not many conscious states. The distinction between consciousness of blue and consciousness of yellow is not a distinction within consciousness but one superimposed on it by a distinction among its objects, blue and yellow. With this, the Samkhya, Vijnanavadin Buddhist, and Nyaya-Vaisheshika pluralism are refuted. Reality is one, infinite, eternal, and self-shining spirit; it is without any determination, for all determination is negation.
INTRODUCTION. THE SWAMI VIVEKANANDA was sent by his friends and co-reli-gionists to present their belief at the Congress of Religions that was held in connection with the WorId's Fair in Chicago. This he did in a way to win general interest and admiration. Since then he has lec-tured on the same theme in different parts of our country.
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Advaita Vedanta (/ ʌ d ˈ v aɪ t ə v ɛ ˈ d ɑː n t ə /; Sanskrit: अद्वैत वेदान्त, IAST: Advaita Vedānta) is a Hindu tradition of textual exegesis and philosophy and a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience.
